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Divorce and nonmarital childbearing have become increasingly common, leading to more children growing up with a father who lives elsewhere (Sheffield & Winship, 2020). This shift raises important questions about how children maintain their attachment to parents after a separation and how this affects their social competence in the early years.

‘The amount of time a nonresident father spends with his child or the financial support he provides may not guarantee strong impact on the child’s development.’

Most research on children’s relationships with nonresident fathers focus mainly on child support payments and visitation schedules. However, the amount of time a nonresident father spends with his child or the financial support he provides may not guarantee strong impact on the child’s development. There is still limited understanding of how nonresident fathers influence development, during early childhood. In this blog post, I present a scoping review of the existing literature exploring how nonresident fathers contribute to the social competence of children aged birth to eight, identifying dynamics in the interactions between children and their nonresident fathers.

Key findings

1. Frequency of contact is not enough. Many studies have relied on the nonresident fathers’ contact frequency as a measure of their involvement (Choi, 2010; Greene & Moore, 2000; Jackson et al., 2009).
2. Behavioural measures don’t reflect social competence. Much research assessed a child’s social competence based on behavioural indicators – such as frequency of problem behaviours. However, only a few studies have found a weak correlation between the involvement of nonresident fathers and children’s behavioural issues (Dyer et al., 2018; King, 1994).
3. Nonresident fathers’ indirect effects on child’s social competence. Research also shows that the presence and involvement of nonresident fathers indirectly impact a child’s social competence by influencing the mother’s psychological wellbeing and parenting approach. Essentially, when fathers are involved, it improves the mother’s psychological wellbeing and parenting effectiveness, which leads to better developmental outcomes for the child (Choi, 2010; Jackson et al., 2009).

What’s still missing in the research?

While these findings provide valuable insights, they also highlight significant gaps in our understanding. The following outline three key areas that future research should explore:

1. Beyond frequency: Understanding the quality of father–child interactions. Future research should focus less on how often fathers visit and more on how they engage with their children during these visits. What behaviours are shared between father and child?
2. Understanding the unique father–child relationship. There’s limited research on the unique styles of interaction between nonresident fathers and their children. It’s important to consider not just the father’s actions but the child’s role as an active participant in their development.
3. A holistic approach to social competence. Researchers need a more holistic view of children’s social competence. Social competence is influenced not only by parental involvement but also by cultural context and societal expectations around fatherhood.

Conclusion: Moving forward

The research into nonresident fathers and their contributions to early childhood development needs greater attention. The focus on visit frequency and behaviour problems has overlooked the complex, qualitative aspects of the father–child relationship. As we move forward, it’s essential that future studies go beyond statistical measurements and delve into the quality of the interactions that occur between fathers and their children.

So, here’s a question to ponder: What does meaningful father involvement look like beyond presence and financial support?

References

Choi, J. K. (2010). Nonresident fathers’ parenting, family processes, and children’s development in urban, poor, single-mother families. Social Service Review, 84(4), 655–677.

Dyer, W. J., Kauffman, R., Fagan, J., Pearson, J., & Cabrera, N. (2018). Measures of father engagement for nonresident fathers. Family Relations, 67(3), 381–398.

Greene, A. D., & Moore, K. A. (2000). Nonresident father involvement and child well-being among young children in families on welfare. Marriage & Family Review, 29(2–3), 159–180. Ìý

Jackson, A. P., Choi, J. K., & Franke, T. M. (2009). Poor single mothers with young children: Mastery, relations with nonresident fathers, and child outcomes. Social Work Research, 33(2), 95–106.

King, V. (1994). Variation in the consequences of nonresident father involvement for children’s well-being. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 56, 963–972. Ìý

Sheffield, R., & Winship, S. (2020). The demise of the happy two-parent home. US Congress Joint Economic Committee.